Dog Breeding and Society Essay

Dogs are known to be man’s best friend. Cliche as it may sound like, dogs have proven continually over the centuries since they were first domesticated, just how helpful they can be in human lives. From being mere allies on the hunting grounds during the Neolithic period to adored and prized pets of families, dogs have been trained to take on more and more roles in human society. The domestication and subsequent breeding of dogs began with their ancestors the wolves. During the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of human history, both man and wolves shared the same objective of hunting and gathering food, as well as the same enemy, the big cats. (Kreiner 4) Perhaps the humans at that time realized the benefits of having canines on their team in hunting and tracking prey that they began capturing wolf cubs and treating them as pets to be raised as hunters. (â€Å"Dogs and People: The History and Psychology of a Relationship†) With the evolution of dogs into many different breeds, people have also come to realize that not all dogs are the same and that is not just in reference to their physical appearance. In terms of utility, some dogs proved to be better suited to specific jobs like hunting and herding. Similarly, an appreciation for the physical and temperamental qualities of different dogs started taking root. From being mere canine companions, dogs started to be bred to fulfill specific duties. Dog breeding started to be a quest to find and develop the perfect specimen of dog breeds according to utility and genetics. HISTORY OF DOG BREEDING Since humans first started noticing the high trainability and utility of dogs, dogs have started to be bred for special purposes. These include hunting and retrieval of game, military and police service, guides for the blind, and erstwhile companions. (â€Å"Dog†) Dog breeding also finds its roots in the 19th century. Dog breeders believed that the public placed a premium on dogs of a specific size, color, physical, and temperamental qualities. This was proven true when the demand for â€Å"quality† puppies from dog breeders rose from purchases made by people seeking canine companionship or those who needed dogs for herding and hunting. Today the â€Å"elite† and prime examples of different dog breeds can often be seen show cased and recognized in Kennel clubs and dog shows held both nationally and internationally. The year 1859 saw the first dog show in Newcastle, England where judges focused mainly on working dogs and their skills rather than appearance. Dogs of different breeds paraded on floors sprinkled with sawdust and the judging was done only by three men. Today, the American Kennel Club (AKC) is one of the largest of such organizations concerned with recognizing exemplary specimens and abilities of registered dog breeds. Various competitions for dogs measuring their performance level at different skills are done on mostly weekend events. The competitions range from criteria based on different types of dogs or skills such as tracking and following commands. (Baldwin, and Norris 1) â€Å"There are three types of competition–conformation, obedience, and agility. The agility ring is the one many people are familiar with, where dogs go through various exercises and around obstacles,† says Adrian Woodfork, a licensed AKC judge†(Stokely 175) The conformation competition is said to be targeted at challenging breeders to improve the quality of purebred dogs through extra careful selection of breeding specimens as well as faithful recording of bloodlines, temperament and hereditary traits. (Stokely 175) Every year the AKC publishes a â€Å"point scale† that lists the number of awards available at each show based on the number of specific breeds involved in the show. Some actually view these competitions as perfect opportunities to learn more about different breeds particularly if there are contemplating buying a dog. THE NEW CAREER DOGS: Dogs bred and trained for specific jobs or purposes In addition to the traditional breeder who turns out show quality or traditional working dogs for either altruism or profit, there is another kind of breeder who caters to a market that requires highly intelligent and even-tempered dogs for modern purposes. Breeding Racing Dogs Kennel owner Maria Beck (Clarke, Wright, and Jones 250) is the owner of the Lightning Ridge Kennel in Kansas City, Kansas. It is from here that she not only breeds and trains champion greyhounds, but is the only known African American woman kennel owner in the business. Of greyhounds, she shares: â€Å"The animals are so graceful. The excitement of seeing them race took my heart and I realized that it was what I wanted to do. † Breeding Police or Military Dogs Dogs also contributed greatly to their human counterparts during wartime. In World War II, the American Kennel Club and a group called â€Å"Dogs for Defense† got together some quality dogs for donation to the Quartermaster corps. German Shepherds, Belgian Sheep Dogs, Doberman Pinschers, Farm Collies and Giant Schnauzers were trained in the new K-9 Corps between 1942 and 1945. These dogs would later end up saving the lives of thousands of men in combat by acting as sentries, â€Å"partners† and friends to the military or civilian guard on patrol as well as being scouts, messengers and mine-detection dogs. (â€Å"Dogs and People: The History and Psychology of a Relationship†) The K-9 program remains in place up to present time with dogs employed in police work of drug and bomb detection as well as search and recovery. â€Å"We look for high-energy dogs that have a high fetch drive, mostly bird dogs, like labradors and golden retrievers,† says Steven Buzzard of the West Virginia Division of Corrections (Clayton 64). Breeding seeing eye dogs The high trainability of certain dog breeds have also made them suitable for other jobs outside of the military and police force. Helen Docherty (â€Å"PUPPY LOVE; Ena Will† 30) is just one of the volunteer â€Å"walkers† who work with dogs at the Guide Dog for the Blind Association in the United Kingdom. Dogs like German shepherds, Labrador retrievers and Golden retrievers in addition to the occasional Boxer and mixed breeds are trained to guide the blind and keep them company. Helen describes her experience as: â€Å"You just have to remember that this dog came for a purpose and it will go on to do what it has been trained to do. The comforting thing is at least you’ve played a part in preparing the dog for the fabulous job in life it is meant for, with a blind person. † Breeding for purebreds Purebred dogs (â€Å"Dog†) are the products of â€Å"inbreeding† or â€Å"line breeding† which just keeps dog mating within just one family bloodline. Inbreeding means that bitches are mated with litter-mates, while line bred dogs are those that are the product or mating between a bitch and its close cousins, grand sire, and so on. These dogs are usually bred to conform to the standards of a certain breed and whose bloodline and lineage (also called pedigree) has been recorded for a prescribed period of time. Kennel Clubs usually keep track of the lineage of registered individual purebreds in order to preserve breed standards. Breeding aimed to diversify gene pool. Some breeders focus mainly on the appearance of their dogs without much regard for its pedigree. Mating dogs that are unrelated to each other through assortative mating, breeders try to solidify positive traits. This is also done when a breeder tries to acquire a lacking trait for his stock by mating one of his dogs with another who displays the desirable trait. Breeding hunting dogs There are also breeders who cater to buyers who need dogs for more specific and utilitarian purposes. Hunting and retrieval dogs are just one of the specialized breeds that enjoy a â€Å"niche† market. So does sporting dogs such as the retrievers, pointers, spaniels and setters. These dogs are especially useful for their ability to track air scents. Ground scent hunters belong to the hound group made up of beagles, foxhounds and bloodhounds. Olden England saw a great demand for this particular kind of breed for their fox hunts and point to point chases. Other dogs that are held in high regard by hunters are the visual hunter greyhound dogs and terriers, which were valuable in hunting burrowing prey. Breeding sheep dogs There were also breeders who specialized in working dogs that are used as herders or guides. This included collies, the German Shepherd and the massive St. Bernard. Ladies who wanted companionship proved to be another market for the breeders. Toy and lap dogs such as the Pekingese and the Pomeranian were elevated to â€Å"status symbols† and cuddly playthings. Other companions were the non-sporting dogs the Boston terrier, the bulldog, the chowchow and the Dalmatian. ISSUES CONCERNING THE BREEDING OF DOGS Whatever the dog owner’s reason is for breeding their dogs, the health and safety of the dogs themselves remain at a risk. In the article â€Å"Eight Good reasons NOT to Breed your Dog† by Dr. Elizabeth L. DeLomba, DVM,(2000) she enumerates the following facts that aspiring breeders may not be aware of: 1. Not all dogs are built to breed. Bitches can die during puppy birth. 2. With the massive rise in pet overpopulation and the numbers of dogs that need to be put down in shelters, there are just too many dogs around. 3. Dogs that are not neutered face serious risk of accidents as unaltered males have high tendencies and urges to roam in search of a female. 4. Unspayed females often attract unwelcome attention from dogs of all breeds. 5. Dog labor is not as easy as some people may think. There are instances when dogs need C-sections in order to birth the puppies. 6. Puppy health and survival are not always assured. 7. Not all dogs have the mothering instinct. Puppies can die due to neglect by their mothers. 8. Preparing puppies for sale won’t necessarily bring breeders a wind fall. There are various expenses such as de-worming, vaccine and neo-natal care that are required for newly born puppies. Some believe that putting dogs in shows are not helping them either. While some may argue that the dogs enjoy the outing, there is the stress of performing in a noisy and often tight space crowded with both humans and dogs. Dutch consulting geneticist E. L. Hagedoorn postulates: â€Å"In the production of economically useful animals, the show ring is more of a menace than an aid to breeding. Once fancy points are introduced into the standard of perfection, the breeders will give more attention to those easily judged qualities than to the more important qualities that do not happen to be of such a nature that we can evaluate them at shows. Showing has nothing to do with utility at all, it is simply a competitive game. † (Burns) There have been criticisms that some judges in the popular dog shows do not even know what work the dogs they are judging are capable of doing. Most of the awards are given to dogs that are â€Å"beautiful† and â€Å"fashionable. † Because of this, some show dog owners have taken to cropping the ears and docking the tails of their dogs for cosmetic purposes. The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) is opposed to trimming dog ears for cosmetic and show reasons deeming it as a medically unnecessary and stressful procedure for the dogs to undergo. The AVMA has called on the American Kennel Club and other breed associations to ban dogs with cropped ears from dog shows. (353) Backyard breeders who join shows and obsess about winning ribbons rather than improvement and development of the breed usually last around five years before the interest tapers off according to estimates by the AKC. This often leaves dogs who are beautiful but whose functions and skills have been greatly diminished. â€Å"It is a sad but undeniable fact that breeding to a strict standard of physical points is incompatible with breeding for mental qualities. â€Å"(Lorenz 84) Because awards are given to physically perfect dogs, less attention is paid to the temperament and intelligence of both parent dogs this contention has been proved by the fact that various pure breeds of dog did retain their original good character traits until they fell a prey to fashion. (Lorenz 86) In the article â€Å"The Westminster Eugenics Show† by Jonah Goldberg published in the February 13, 2002 edition of â€Å"The New Republic,† he criticizes the way dog shows such as the Westminster has demoted the functionality and intelligence of dogs into just prancing for a beauty pageant. â€Å"The problem is that Westminster does not judge breeds for those traits which rightly make a breed a breed. The Pointers aren’t asked to point (even though the logo of the Westminster Kennel Club has been a pointing Pointer for over a century). The Bassets and Bloodhounds do not track. The Otter Hounds are not tested to see if they could kill, let alone identify, an otter. And so on and so on. â€Å"With the exception of a handful of breeds who were bred to do nothing but either keep your hands warm or wait until some Aztec chef could cook them, not a single breed at Westminster is expected to do what it was bred to do†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Another issue about breeders is the level of responsibility they are credited with in the euthanasia of animals who have not been fortunate to be adopted from the shelters. Just recently, the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) launched a billboard campaign against dog breeders and their patrons saying that breeding dogs diminishes the chances of those in animal shelters of being adopted. On their web site, the PETA claims that despite whatever good treatment the dogs under the care of breeders and their buyers receive, they cannot be called â€Å"responsible breeders. † According to PETA, if there is anything that dog breeders are responsible for, it is the deaths of the dogs at the animal shelters who could have been adopted had not the option of purchasing a puppy or dog from a breeder was available. All these issues however, have been strongly negated by dog breeders and owners alike. On the PETA message board itself discussing the new â€Å"billboards vs. breeders campaign† buyers have stated that if they were open to buying dogs without knowledge of their backgrounds, health and temperament-wise, they would have gone to shelters in the first-place. (â€Å"What’s up now Breeders? â€Å") Similarly, breeders have posted their defense on the message boards saying that the dogs in animal shelters are the products of irresponsible pet ownership as well as uncontrolled expansion of the dog population through â€Å"puppy mills† and feral dogs that have not been either spayed or neutered. ‘TRUE BREEDERS’ IN SEARCH OF THE PERFECT DOG Nobody can take dogs more seriously than a true breeder. The selection and process of dog breeding is both an intricate and rewarding one. Before anything, dog breeders assess the physical and mental characteristics of a prospective breed of dog. These are vital for dog breeders are tasked not only with breeding and turning out physically beautiful show type dogs but also making sure that these dogs are sound and even-tempered. Everybody who has owned more than one dog knows how widely individual canine personalities differ from each other. No two are really alike any more than human beings are, even among twins; but even in human beings it is possible to pick out individual traits and, by combining them, to explain up to a certain extent the different temperaments, though character analysis can never attain the grade of an exact natural science, owing to the infinite complexity of its subject. The dog’s personality is vastly simpler, and it is much easier to explain the peculiarities of different characters by considering the development of certain ‘characteristic’ traits, and their combinations in the individual. (Lorenz 19). The quest for the perfect dog specimen is an intricate process. Dog breeds and bloodlines are produced by mating dogs with certain desirable characteristics with the purpose of producing young that carry a combination of all these characteristics. POSITION While it is true that despite its noble beginnings Dog breeding has turned into something that can be exploited for financial gain, it is thoroughly irresponsible to lump all breeders under one banner. There are some breeders who truly care about their charges and seek only to preserve that particular breed. Perhaps rather than continually blaming one organization or another for the fate endured by shelter dogs, it would be much better to push for stricter laws regarding the sales and ownership of dogs as well as measures for neutering/spaying feral canines. As for the dog shows, it would be wise to remember that it wasn’t the dog’s choice to be there. There is a need to educate both sides of the argument as to the views of the other. They may both have valid points but too radical and extreme thinking can only bring more harm than good. There has to be some form of compromise. CONCLUSION Dogs as well as other domesticated animals have brought much joy and benefits in their co-existence with human beings. Whether it be for companionship or something more utilitarian, dogs have proven to be man’s best friend in ways that other human’s just cannot. People need to be aware however that the human’s mandate of stewardship includes a responsibility to all creatures under their care. Humans are the stewards of their canine companions. Caring for dogs does not stop at simply feeding them. Bottom line however is whether human or pets, every living thing is entitled to security, protection from harm and respect. It is just a pity and a vast shame that dogs cannot talk and that they cannot be asked what they think of their status and existence in human society. Works Cited Baldwin, Cheryl K. , and Patricia A. Norris. â€Å"Exploring the Dimensions of Serious Leisure: â€Å"Love Me – Love My Dog! â€Å". † Journal of Leisure Research 31. 1 (1999): 1. Burns, Patrick. â€Å"From Rosettes to Ruin: Making and Breaking Dogs in the Show Ring. † Terrierman. com. Clarke, Robyn D. , Mark W. Wright, and Chandrika M. Jones. â€Å"Running with the Big Dogs. † Black Enterprise Feb. 2000: 250. Clayton, Susan L. â€Å"Teaching Dogs New Tricks. † Corrections Today June 1999: 64. DeLomba, Elizabeth. â€Å"Eight Good Reasons Not to Breed Your Dog. â€Å"WorkingDogs. 2000 Workingdogs. com 3 Oct 2007. â€Å"Dogs and People: The History and Psychology of a Relationship. † Journal of Business Administration and Policy Analysis : 54+. Goldberg, Jonah. â€Å"Westminster Eugenics Show. † National Review Online. 13 February 2002. nationalreview. com 3 Oct2007 Kreiner, Judith. â€Å"A Look at Friends: Man and His Dog. † The Washington Times 12 Feb. 2000: 4. Lorenz, Konrad. Man Meets Dog. London: Routledge, 2002. â€Å"PUPPY LOVE; Ena Will Soon Be a Guide Dog Thanks to the Care and Training of One Woman. † Daily Record (Glasgow, Scotland) 2 Feb. 2006: 30. Stokely, Sonja Brown. â€Å"Gone to the Dogs. † Black Enterprise Dec. 2000: 175.

African American History Essay

Introduction The America that was there after the conclusion of the civil war is nothing like the America we recognize presently. Significant events have occurred since 1865 that have shaped our understanding of what America is today. Major industrialization and urbanization, equal rights for all citizens and the two major world wars that have shaped our understanding of what America is today. While, there are numerous events that have shaped America, there are few events that have served as markers of change for the entire society, particularly for the African Americans. From 1619 to 1865, a significant number of African American immigrated to the United States as slaves. Ever since the arrival of the first African Americans in Point Comfort, currently known as Fort Monroe in Hampton, the African American community has made significant strides in the community. However, the major event that occasioned this strikes transpired in 1865: the abolishment of slavery. This marked as a single major event that catapulted the African American society to where it is today. This article will examine the history of African American from 1865 to today. In 1865, the civil war between the north and south, or civil war as it is known came to an end. This was a time of great upheaval in the American society. The entire American society was attempting to integrate, and become part of the union. The south had agreed to integrate and become part f the union (Feagin, 2014). The South had consented to join the union. In the same year, President Lincoln was assassinated. The conclusion of the Civil War occasioned the beginning of the period of reconstruction. This period was characterized by upheaval, and the AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY SINCE 1865 3 country attempted to reintegrate itself, and also integrate the southern. This was a period of new beginning for the entire nation (Gates, 2012). The Constitution 13th amendment was ratified, abolishing slavery in the United States of America. This phase is edged in history as one of the most imperative event in the African Americans history (Feagin, 2014). During the era of reconstruction, which lasted from 1865 to 1876, significant events occurred that shaped the lives of African Americans. The African Americans begun the process of reintegration, and they found themselves with a system that they were not used to. This period was not just a period of reintegration for the white people, but rather for the entire nation (Feagin, 2014). During this time, it was particularly challenging to the African Americans because they were attempting to integrate to a society that was heavily biased against them. During the reconstruction period, there was little political and social agreement, especially over the issues of who should be permitted to vote (Gates, 2012). There were disagreements as to whether confederates, ex-slaves or those slaves that fought during the war should be allowed to vote. The death of President Lincoln and the establishment of new administration under President Andrew Johnson made the process of reintegration more complex for African Americans (Feagin, 2014). In 1866, legislation known as the ‘Black Codes’ was overwhelmingly passed by every white legislator of the former confederate States. The black codes greatly hampered the ability of African Americans to be reintegrated into the society (Gates, 2012). During that same year, the Congress passed the Civil rights act, which conferred citizenship rights to all African Americans, and giving those equal rights and liberties as to those of the white-American people (Feagin, 2014). The 14th amendment was ratified, in 1868, which defined citizenship for the African Americans, and also which overturned the Dred Scot decision (Gates, 2012). The 14th amendment strengthened the civil and legal rights of the African Americans, elucidating among other things, AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY SINCE 1865 4 that no state in the union shall deprive any African Americans their due process in law and the equal protections provided in the law (Feagin, 2014). The 14th amendment ensured, to some extent that the African Americans civil rights were protected. The 14th Amendment reversed the United States Supreme Court ruling in Dred Scott v. Sanford, which ruled that African Americans were not truly United States citizens (Feagin, 2014). The 14th amendment had several profound impacts on the lives of African Americans. First off, the amendment integrated African Americans into the society, by overruling the previous ruling that African Americans were not truly American citizens (Gates, 2012). Secondly, the 14th amendment prohibited the national and state governments from depriving any person, including African Americans, liberty, life and property without due regard and process as established in law. By guarding the civil liberties and rights of African Americans, the law inflicted a penalty, which entailed the loss of electoral votes and the loss of congressional seats, on states that dispossessed African Americans of their voting rights. Thirdly, the 14th amendment guaranteed all Americans, regardless of their racial affiliations protection under the law (Feagin, 2014). This clause serves an essential foundation for the decision to repeal the ruling in Brown v. Board of Education that overturned segregation. The 15th amendment was ratified in 1870, which gave African Americans voting rights. As the third and final amendment to be ratified in the reconstruction period, the 15th amendment forbids the national and state governments from refusing a citizen the voting rights based on that citizen’s color, race or servitude (Feagin, 2014). The adoption of the 15th amendments was greeted with extensive celebrations in African American communities and other abolitionist societies. The sense among African Americans is that their rights had been offered protected and secured. The adoption of the 15th Amendment completed a series of civil change, and it was one of the most significant events African American historical events. The 15th amendment meant AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY SINCE 1865 5 that the African American communities did not require the protection they were being offered by the government (Feagin, 2014). Towards the end of the reconstruction era, the south recognized that it would no longer be conceivable to hold on the perspective of recreating itself out of the North. In spite of this, there was still lingering tensions between the North and South (Feagin, 2014). Although equal rights were granted to African Americans, they did not fully enjoy them. While African Americans enjoyed expanded freedoms, it would not be till nearly a hundred years later, during the Civil rights movement that the entire fruits of reconstruction would be seen. The period of reconstruction ended in 1877, during which, a deal was struck with Democratic leaders from the south, to make Rutherford B. Hayes the U. S president, in exchange for the withdrawal of federal troops from the south, and which stops the efforts to protect the Civil liberties of African Americans. In the period after the reconstruction era, rapid industrialization followed. During this period, African Americans on the south started escaping to the North to run away from oppression (Gates, 2012). In 1879, thousands of African Americans moved to the north. In the industrialization period, rapid industrialization and development ensued in big cities in the United States. Construction of railroads spread across the country. Railroads encouraged the growth and expansion of cities (Gates, 2012). Many Africa Americans migrated to the cities to work in the processing and production companies. In 1881, Tennessee ratified the first of the ‘Jim Crow’ segregation rules, which segregated stated railroads. Over the next 15 years, similar laws were passed throughout the southern States. The segregation laws caused African Americans to migrate to the northern States (Gates, 2012). The Jim Crow segregation laws conferred a separate but equal status to all African Americans. In practice, the separation led to circumstances for African Americans that were second-rate to those offered to white Americans. AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY SINCE 1865 6 systematizing several of economic, educational and socials disadvantages. The southern states had De jure while de facto applied in the northern states (Feagin, 2014). The Jim Crow segregation laws inflicted segregation in housing, which was imposed by covenants, job discrimination, and loan lending discrimination in banks, and also African Americans were also discriminated in labor unions (Gates, 2012). During the industrialization era, companies came up across various cities. African Americans were increasingly becoming urbanized, and left their farms and homesteads, and moved to big cities to get jobs. In 1887, the ‘standing Lincoln’ statue was unveiled at Augustus Saint gardens in Chicago (Feagin, 2014). The Plessey v. Ferguson case was a milestone ruling in the United States. The Supreme Court of the United States ruled that ‘Jim Crow’s separate but equal segregation policies to be legal, and begin being implemented. These laws barred African Americans from equal access in all public facilities. The 1900s marked the rise of civil rights movement across the United States. In 1954, the court in Brown v. Board of education case, ruled that segregation in education facilities to be unconstitutional and this measure strike down segregation in education facilities (Feagin, 2014). In 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested in Montgomery Alabama, for refusing to give up her seat to a white man. Her defiance offered the start of a momentum to the civil rights movement that spread across the United States. She was not the first black person to refuse to wake up for a white person, but by the time of her action, there was growing resentment and anger in the African American society for being treated as second-class citizens. Word went around about Montgomery mistreatment and arrest (Feagin, 2014). The Women’s Political Council resolved to protest Rosa Park’s ill-treatment by arranging a bus boycott to start on the day of Parks’ trial, December 5th. Martin Luther King Jr. and the African American community established an association, the MIA (Montgomery Improvement Association) to carry on boycotting until the AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY SINCE 1865 7 Jim Crow segregation laws were altered (Feagin, 2014). The key objective was to stop segregation in the public transport system and other sections of the society, and also to employ African-American drivers in Montgomery. The public unrest ensured for 382 days, costing the Montgomery bus company he sums of money, however the city declined to give in (Feagin, 2014). The Montgomery protest leaders filed a national lawsuit in opposition to the city’s segregation rules, claiming that Montgomery desecrated the 14th Amendment. In 1956, a national court stated that the Montgomery segregation rules were unlawful, but lawyers for Montgomery County appealed. On November 3rd, 1956 the Supreme Court ruled that the segregation laws in Montgomery were illegal. During the protest, the Montgomery authorities made many arrests (Feagin, 2014). At one time, the police detained a group of African Americans waiting for carpool pick-ups. A court jury acknowledged the boycott unlawful, and 115 protest leaders were detained. In 1957, Martin Luther King, Jr. established the Southern Christian Leadership conference, which served as the forefront engine of the civil rights movement. The conference served as the main council for organizing civil rights protests across United States. The civil right movements were against discrimination of any kind and the fair treatment of all people, regardless of their color across United States. The civil right movement characterized main campaigns and protests of civil resistance (Feagin, 2014). The civil rights movements lasted between 1955 and 1968. The civil rights movements were characterized by civil disobedience and non-violent protests. In 1964, the civil rights act was ratified, and it prohibited all acts of discrimination. In 1965, The Voting Rights Act was ratified, and it outlaws the carried out in the South to disenfranchise black voters. In 1967, the first African American senator, Edward W. Brooke, was elected, and he served for two terms (Feagin, 2014). Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated in Tennessee, which was one of the sad moments in African American AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY SINCE 1865 8 history. The election of Barack Obama served as a significant milestone for United States, particularly the African American community. President Barack Obama was elected the first African-American president, in 2008. President’s Barack Obama’s election served as one of the most significant milestone for the African Americans community (Feagin, 2014). A racial divide that was there between the African Americans and white Americans was erased, and it was erased for all eternity. President Barack Obama was elected for a second term in office, which signaled the apparent rise of the African American community to the top (Feagin, 2014). In his second term in office, President Barack Obama has shown that there are things that seem more possible for the African Americans, than they were in his first term. He has made African Americans realize that they can achieve anything if they want to, and made their expectations realistic. Conclusion From the shackles of slavery in the 1800s, the African American community has risen to take full advantage of their civil liberties and freedoms. For over 300 years, African Americans fought for their civil rights and freedom. The African Americans struggles have been a major issue in each juncture of United States history. In 1776, when slave-holders were revolting in opposition to the menace of British abolitionism, the African Americans formed part of the American Revolution. During the civil war, the African Americans were also part of the struggles. African Americans have endured as much as any other community and have fought for the rights and liberties of all people in the community. From the attainment of freedom, and the struggle to get equal rights and civil liberties, the election of Barack Obama as the first African- American President, the African American community can gladly say that the racial divide between the Blacks and white Americans has been completely erased. AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY SINCE 1865 9 References Feagin, J. R. (2014). Racist America: Roots, current realities, and future reparations. London: Routledge. Gates, H. L. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of African American Citizenship, 1865-present. London, UK: Oxford University Press.

Strategic Quality Planning

123 Strategic Quality Planning Quality is strategic. This may seem somewhat obvious, but the actions of Companies implementing quality measures oftenobscure this fact. This is especially true when a comNpany is in a reactive mode and does notjise effective planning. In this chapter we discuss iinportant aspeets of strategic quality planning. Strategic planning has two important dimensions: content and pro ess. Strategy content answers the question of what is to be contained in the strategic plan. Mw consists of the steps used to develop the strategy.In this chapter we first discuss content and then process. Finally, we look at quality results and whether quality has been shown to yield bottornlme results along the supply chain. STRATEGY CONTENT Why is quality planning important? As we have discussed in previous chapters, quality improveY ment is a planned managerial activity. As shown in this Chapter, quality improvement involves identifying potential improvements, prioritizing poten tial areas for improvement, and planning the implementation of projects and improvements.What are the content variables that should be included in strategic quality planning? Among the variables we discuss are time, leadership, quality costs, generic strategies (cost, differentiation, and focus), order Winners, and quality as a core Competency. These content variables outline key considerations when developing a strategic plan. These considerations are either explicitly or implicitly addressed in the strategic planning processes discussed later in the chapterA THE IMPORTANCE OF TIME IN QUALITY IMPROVEMENTWe discuss two aspect of time: the time it takes to business goals as a result of quality and the at which companies improve. Real-life experience shows that time is a key variable in improving quality. Amajor study of best quality-related practices undertaken by Ernst and Young2 was critical of total quality management – ATQM ro rams for not rovidin bottom-line results. At t he same time, the Ernst Vldeo Chp. P g P g Mission at the Ritz and Young study advocated the implementation of TQM. A comprehensive . 17† @E 1 Garvin, D. , Operations Strategy (Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1992)4

Poetry from Lusophone Africa Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Poetry from Lusophone Africa - Essay Example The writers of Lusophone poetry were persecuted, exiled, or imprisoned. Moreover, they were rejected by Portuguese because of their portrayal of Portuguese rule and the existing war situation. This poetry agitated Africans to rise up for their rights and aimed to eliminate the suffering and supported the rise of reactionary forces (da Silva, 1999). Most writers wrote in their native languages. In the poem Lisbon-1971 by Armenio Vieira, the writer starts off by taking the reader to Portugal. Lisbon is the capital city of Portugal, as well as an alpha city, and the largest airport is Portela. Armenio uses imagery to vividly depict the air that was around the airport that day. During colonial times, Cape Verde was a major trading centre for African slaves. The writer creates an image of the heavy police presence and planes at the airport. His group was the most miserable among all the groups from Africa. He uses symbolism as he refers to the slaves as cattle. Cattle live in poor conditions as they sleep with their dung. Their colour betrayed their racial background and they had been shipped as slaves from Cape Verde. The use a truck and crates symbolize the dirty environment in which the slaves were subjected to and the poor conditions they had to live in (Moser, 33). Moreover, the cold weather added to their suffering, and the inhabitants of Portela were not sympathetic to

Bio project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Bio project - Essay Example Treatment options are very few with varying degree of success percentage. This paper briefly explains Leukemia, probable reasons and treatment options. Exact reasons of blood cancer are still unknown, but genetic effects and exposure to retroviruses are generally considered as the reasons of blood cancer (Mamgain). Leukaemia means ‘white cells in the blood. â€Å"The white cells are part of the body’s immune system, and there are several sub-groups of white cells that have different sorts of roles in recognizing and dealing with ‘invaders’ such as bacteria and viruses as well as other types of foreign protein. All of the blood cells originate in the bone marrow and leukaemia is a disease where the bone marrow produces large numbers of abnormal white cells. This means that the normal marrow is pushed into smaller and smaller areas. This results in fewer normal cells being produced and gives rise to some of the symptoms† (Dr  Ã‚  Green) Blood test and born marrow test is used to confirm leukemia. Based on the nature and seriousness, Leukemia can be classified into four categories; ALL (Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia), AML (Acute Myelocytic Leukemia), CLL (Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia), CML (Chronic Myelocytic Leukemia) (CHRONIC LEUKEMIA TREATMENT INFORMATION) Symptoms of leukemia include’ Fatigue, Malaise (vague feeling of bodily discomfort), Abnormal bleeding, Excessive bruising, Weakness, Reduced exercise tolerance, Weight loss, Bone or joint pain, Infection and fever, Abdominal pain or "fullness", Enlarged spleen, lymph nodes, and liver etc (Leukemia Signs and Symptoms, 2009) It is difficult to diagnose blood cancer because of the similarities blood cancer symptoms have with other diseases. For example, fatigue weight loss fever etc is generally associated with many other diseases and the doctors will try to treat such diseases initially before going for a detailed

Capital Budgeting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Capital Budgeting - Essay Example There are various capital budgeting techniques which are used in evaluation of a project so to determine its viability they include; net present value, internal rate of return, profitability index, average rate of return, pay-back period and modified internal rate of return. Guillermo Furniture is faced with three investment situations, which are to continue with the current production, adopt high-tech production, or act as a broker. Therefore, there is need to ascertain which of the investment will yield the highest returns to the firm. In order to carry out efficient investment appraisal, we will involve four capital budgeting techniques. The techniques that will be applied in this case will include; computation of net present value, internal rate of return, average rate of return and the profitability index. Net present value is capital techniques which uses discounted cash flows. It estimate the present value of future cash out flow and discount the future cash flow using cost of capital of the country ( the cost of equity for unlevered firm and Weighted average cost of capital for the levered firm). After ascertaining the present value of all cash flow of Guillermo furniture, the cash flow are summed up (cash inflows are positive while cash outflows are negative) (Shapiro, 2005).

Lab report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 5

Lab Report Example In the course of the experiment, the presence of a peptide bond through the application of the method would result to a copper (ii) ion forming violet color in an alkaline solution. The Biuret test in this experiment is used in the determination of the concentration since peptide bonds occur with the same frequency in each amino acid in the peptide. This is possible in this experiment since the absorption at 550 nm is directly proportional to the protein concentration in accordance to Beer-Lambert law, thus enabling the experiment to determine the level of protein concentration in a solution (Janairo et al. 2011). Folin protein assay is a biochemical assay for determination of the total level of protein in a solution. In this experiment, the concentration of protein is manifested in the color change in the sample solution in proportion to the concentration of protein. The method is based on the reaction of Cu+ produced by the oxidation of the peptide bonds (Lowry et al. 1951). For the biuret protein assay, when 3mg protein is used in the experiment, the average absorbance in 550nm is 0.690. For 2.5 mg, the average absorbance is 0,440nm, for 2mg protein, the average absorbance is 0.588nm. When 1.5 mg protein is used, the average absorbance is 0.564 nm, 1mg result to average absorbance of 0.540nm while 0.5ng solution results to an average absorbance of 0.224nm. In tube X the average absorbance is 0.454nm while tube Y which contains approximately half of the volume of X results to an average absorption of 0.232nm. From the experiment, it is evident that the amount of absorption is directly proportionate to the amount of protein concentration in a solution at a standard absorption level of 550nm absorbance. Thus, the biuret protein assay test is a concrete test that can be used in the determination of the peptide bonds and the amount of proteins in a solution (Lipscomb et al. 2006). For

Research Proposal on Blood Donation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

On Blood Donation - Research Proposal Example an individual who is in need of a blood transfusion, approximately 41000 donations are required on a daily basis and there is need for there to be a blood reserve in case of an emergency (American Red Cross). Unfortunately, there are blood donation shortages leading to a blood shortage throughout the country. This proposal addresses the problem of blood donation shortages and how it can be addressed. There is lack of adequate research in existing literature dealing with the concept of blood donation. In fact, existing literature has not shown the need for further research as studies conducted mainly address the major reasons affecting individual’s willingness to donate blood. The research study needs to be conducted to address the reasons behind the blood shortages in the US and how they can be addressed. Although past studies have concentrated on some of factors affecting individuals’ motivation to donate blood, they have failed to concentrate on how incentives can positively influence their decision to donate blood (Hough 67). The study raises issues about offering economic incentives to encourage individuals to donate blood and some of the major reasons why individuals fail to donate blood. Various factors influence blood donation decisions including incentives, health concerns and the effects on the donor. Offering incentives is likely to have a positive impact on blood donation since it motivates individuals a higher number of individuals to donate blood. According to this theory, intentions are the major antecedents to behavior. Intention is the then paves the way for attitudes, perceived behavioral control and subjective norms. This model has been supported by a number of studies that have found that model accounts for 39 percent and 27 percent of the variance in intentions and behavior respectively. In the current study, the model can be used to explain the variance in blood donation between 31 percent and 72 percent and between 54 percent and 56

Policies & Regulations of Social Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 14500 words

Policies & Regulations of Social Media - Essay Example In social network, users (such as friends or acquaintances) with common interests often share hobbies, information and interests, depending on the privacy settings. Nowadays, Social Networking Sites (SNS) have become prevalent ways of communication. For instance, Government agencies are using SNS such as Facebook, Twitter, MySpace, and Orkut, to execute their e-government functions (McNamara, 2011). Currently, E-governance is widely accepted around the world, especially because it provides different opportunities such as encouraging delivery of service at the government level, reducing the cost of government operations and improving the effectiveness of government functions. Therefore, many governments have adopted e-governance and its related technologies to their perceived benefits. In this view of this, this study will analyse and highlight Saudi Arabia’s social media regulations and policies. 1.1 Aim The aim of this research is to evaluate social media policies and regulat ions in government organizations in Saudi Arabia, which is essential in ensuring effective adoption and usage of social media. 1.2 Objectives These are the main objectives for undertaking this study. To identify the existing social media policies (if any) among government organizations in Saudi Arabia. To document policies and regulations that facilitates and enhances the successful adoption and usage of social media in government organizations. To encourage the government organization in Saudi Arabia to use social media tools because none exists at the moment. To come up with recommendations regarding relevant policies and to control the use of social media 1.3 Research Questions Particularly, through this research, the aim is to answer four major questions regarding the use of social media in Saudi Arabia’s government organizations. These include the following: How are Saudi government organizations using social media? What are some of the difficulties reported in the use o f social media by both the staff and organizational heads? Are there policies and regulations that govern the use of social media in these organizations? If not, why not? What are some of the regulations and policies that can be adopted to enhance effective use of social media in Saudi’s government organizations? 1.4 Research Background In the 1990s, the Internet transformed people’s lives and now social media come with new horizon of sharing information and collaboration. However, to enhance the effectiveness of social media usage for government organizations, social media policy is fundamental. According to Hrdinova et al., (2010), with the increasing demand of the social media, many organizations are trying to cope with the current social media atmosphere and its recent transformation by changing the design of the old policy and regulations of Internet use. However, in these organizations, the manner in which social media has been used, has led to the development of social media policies. Therefore, the study will demonstrate the procedure of implementation, technological application and efficient policy of social media. However, to execute all these, Jana Hrdinova and Natalie Helbig (2011) suggested three core points by which social media can be efficiently used by the government agencies. First, to support the

Theoretical approach Essay Example for Free

Theoretical approach Essay The use of a theoretical approach to explain a phenomenon in the society is not uncommon. For this term paper the writer is required to use five theories to answer five moral questions given. One the theory is distributive justice. This theory has to do with justice in the allocation of goods in the society. It aims at reducing inequalities that occur unintentionally and it is guided by several factors. The amount of goods to be distributed, how they will be used and how they will be divided which in essence means it deals with ensuring the outcomes and the consequences of the allocation of goods in society are just. The other theory that will be applied in this term paper is the moral rights theory which entails the rights held by developers of copyrighted materials, the right to publish a book with a pseudonym among other rights. These rights are not anchored solely on law or people’s customs or beliefs they are just natural rights. The virtue of ethics is an approach that focuses on a moral agent’s character but not so much on the rules or the consequences. An action is thereby right or wrong due to what a character does not because of the consequences of their actions. Using this theory an individual will be able to discern whether the definition of what is considered ‘green’ should be standardized. The other theories that will be used to look at the Moral Issue Questions in depth are the utilitarianism and the ethics of care theories. Utilitarian approach advocates for the action that brings the most pleasure to the people. The outcome of an action therefore becomes very important since the results are measured by looking at the levels of satisfaction or dissatisfaction in the general public. The ethics of care theory on the other hand is an approach that looks at action being either right or wrong. This theory advocates for the interests of the people who are vulnerable to warrant special consideration and these people should be protected form harm. These five approaches will be used to look at the moral issues that the scenarios presented pose and the best answer to the MIQ based on those theories. Distributive Justice MIQ. Who should regulate corporate compensation? Defining excessive pay Investment advisors have been known to overcharge their clients for the services rendered. In this case Oakmark family of mutual funds are alleging that the manager of funds from Harris Associates charged the family double the amounts charged for the same services extended to other clients thereby violating their fiduciary duty (Barnes Mufson 2009). The family wants the court to determine if they have a legal claim and how much Harris associates should pay as compensation. The case creates many dilemmas and has myriad consequencies not just on the U. S. Supreme court but also on the political arena as well. The mutual funds field being as competitive as it is the Harris Associates feel mutual funds investors are free to scout the market and get the best advisor for their needs. Also, the fact that they managed to grow the Oaks Family account as extensive as they did means they have done their job. Despite the Harris Associate defending their actions, the Founder of Vanguard Group and a very influential figure in the mutual funds industry feels that what Harris Associates did was a direct violation of the fiduciary duty and the courts should enforce this duty on investment advisors (Barnes Mufson 2009). According to distributive justice theory the courts should regulate the corporate compensation. Leaving the decision to the investment advisors will propagate the injustices even further. Harris Associates were not just in charging the Oak Family double the amount charged other companies for the same or even lesser services rendered. Therefore the court should ensure that the Oak’s get justice and are fully compensated. This is because as the mutual funds industry grows most investment advisors are aligning their loyalties to suit themselves and the government should step in and protect the rights of the investors. Moral Rights MIQ. Should the government penalize Bank of America for accepting bail out money only to pay it back ahead of schedule in order to attract CEO with lucrative pay and benefits? The Federal Government gives corporations bailouts with several conditions which are basically to do with the control and effective running of the a bailout beneficiary. The Bank of America after benefiting from the government bailout is finding it challenging running its operations with the interference of the government. Therefore it has decided to repay the taxpayer aid extended by the government during the financial crisis before the payment periods is over to free itself of any direct government interference. Being free of government debt the company will then be in a position to attract a Chief Executive Officer after the current chief retires since as things stand now most are shying away from working in the corporation due to the present government interference (Appelbaum 2009). According to Appelbaum (2009) the government will not accept the repayment until the Bank can ascertain it is in sound economic health and has stabilized. The bailout was due to a poor expansion decision made by the then Chief Executive. The much needed bailout came but left the bank under the mercy of the government. This government involvement has really affected the search for a new Chief since it has increased the scrutiny of the banks activities and now all the decisions the bank officials make have to be analyzed by the federal government. The government’s intentions bailing out the bank were noble as it was safeguarding one of the countries big economic players and it had to make sure that the bank did not sink to the quagmire again in future. By virtue of the bailout the government therefore owns the corporation since it saved it from a total collapse. According to Moral rights theory the government has to scrutinize all the decisions made in the past and in the present as it has a right by virtue of the money loaned. The government is not penalizing the bank for accepting the bailout money it is just ensuring the situation never happens again. A corporations chief should be versatile enough to work under all conditions and therefore by shying away from a lucrative position because ones activities will be scrutinized by a rightful owner according to the moral rights theorists is not right. The government as a developer has a natural right over the bank and all its undertakings. Therefore the government is justified according to this theory to penalize the bank. Utilitarianism MIQ. Should future space programs be privatized? Private Enterprises Ticket to Fly Into Space According Achenbach (2009) there is the possibility that a time is coming whereby going to the moon or to outer space will be as easy as flying to another destination is today. This is because the notion of privatizing spaceflight is looking more and lucrative each day. The American government is finding it challenging factoring in all the activities of NASA in the budget. A committee was formed by President Obama led by a retired aerospace executive Norman Augustine to evaluate and advise the president on the best course of action to take about NASA. This is because the government is feeling the strain and even according to the Committee there is not enough money for NASA’s 2020 planned trip to the moon. The budget for future spaceflights has been reduced. The committee recommended changes in strategies employed by NASA and proposed NASA looks into or explores other cheaper exploration opportunities. The biggest dilemma has to do with the Ares 1 rocket whose maintenance cost has been very high and the committee has proposed a cancellation should be considered. This creates other complications like individuals loosing their livelihoods and some other security implications. The only way to deal with scraping off the Ares 1 is considering commercial spaceflight (Achenbach 2009). This means charging those that want to experience a trip to space. This way doors would be open to include private players in the industry. Some people are of the opinion that canceling the trip to the moon in 2020 will derail the plans to go Mars and the government should instead look into other recommendations (Achenbach 2009). The utilitarianism approach advocates for the decision that fosters the most pleasurable result for the majority. There are many alternatives to be looked at in this situation with NASA and all the alternatives have their pros and cons. Through the utilitarianism approach the spaceflight should be privatized. This will open up doors to all those interested companies to invest in this industry. This will encourage creativity and give a chance to the interested members of public a chance to visit space. Privatizing the spaceflights will ease the financial burden on the government which presently finances all NASA’s activities. This money could be put to other urgent needs. The private players will be happy as they can now make money independent of the government by flying astronauts to space commercially. Virtue ethics MIQ. Should there be strict guidelines and definitions on what is considered green meats and fish used in restaurants Most people are becoming very health and environmentally conscious and will only consume those products that are perceived to be inline with their ideals. In order to keep up with this trend entrepreneurs are also sourcing for raw materials from producers who use environmentally friendly methods to grow or rear their produce. This health and environmental platform is what Founding Farmers Restaurant anchored its business on. On its menu it had advertised for ‘green cuisines’ as its specialty (Black 2009). On close scrutiny as the business continued to thrive the restaurant started to deviate from its mission statement and selling products produced in environmentally degrading situations but claiming on the menu it was committed serving ‘green’ food. With growth it became very difficult to source for produce from small family farms and still turn a profit. This is because these farmers sell their products at higher prices than large scale producers as they do not benefit from economies of scale. Also, their supplies are not reliable and sometimes their produce is affected by the seasonal production. The management of Founding Farmers defended their decision to source for its produce form large scale producers by maintaining that in other areas the restaurant was fully ‘green’ (Black 2009). The lack of clear definition on what qualifies as ‘green’ or in other words sustainable foods leaves a lot of grey areas in which some of these entrepreneurs can get away with not offering the customer exactly what they need. Some restaurants like Equinox have managed to run their business by fully supporting family farms which is expensive on their part but they are committed to the course. Founding Fathers on the other hand try as much as possible and the effort is appreciated by many but they have overtime misled customers with their menu about the authenticity of their products. This is because they do not get all their meat from family farms neither are their vegetables from the family farms but they vouch for the quality by alluding that the end justifies the means (Black 2009). According to the virtue ethics theory regardless of the outcomes being good they unfortunately have no basis in establishing whether an action was right or wrong. Therefore what the Founding Farmers are doing remains morally wrong whether the food served in the restaurant is healthy or not. The actions of the managers of the business source for the produce from farms whose practices are in question but the restaurant sells its products buy claiming it got its produce from small scale family farms. Even if their servings are healthy they are not entirely ‘green’. Therefore there should be strict guidelines and definitions on what is considered ‘green’ meats and fish served in restaurants as Founding Farmers has been misleading the public. Ethics of care MIQ. Should the government allow for NBC and Comcast merge? A new kind of company, a new challenge for feds Access to information is very important therefore a situation where this access to information can be controlled by a single company poses a security risk to the country and to the public (Kang 2009). The discussions of a possible merger between Comcast and NBC has definitely caught people’s attention since Comcast is among the largest companies dealing with the provision of internet services whereas NBC is one of the largest television network. This means merging the internet with television thus the information that people have access to online and through the cable is the same. Presently there is information that is accessible through the television only and not available online. For instance in a situation whereby the internet providers feel that the information is too controversial and would affect them negatively thus they do not post it online but the same is revealed through cable. If the two are merged the general public would have access to the same information and this reduces the idea of watchdogs. Therefore as the two would be one it means looking out for each other thus movies produced by NBC would be available online as well without being. In essence the situation poses a very high security risk to the people and there is the possibility of serious exploitation of the general public (Kang 2009). The ethics of care approach advocates for the rights of vulnerable groups to be looked out for as they have no way doing it themselves. The government should not therefore allow NBC and Comcast to merge since this would mean limiting the information the people have on important issues. Reference List Achenbach, J. , (2009). Panel May Urge Strapped NASA To Outsource Commercial Flights. Washington Post; Sep, 5th 2009. Appelbaum, B. , (2009). Bank of America to repay U. S. : Firm will be first to reimburse taxpayers completely for bailout. Washington Post; Dec, 3rd 2009. Barnes, R. Mufson, S. , (2009). Defining excessive pay: Investor case may hint at high court approach to compensation. Washington Post; Nov, 1st 2009. Black, J. , (2009). Green cuisine not always as ordered: Founding Farmers still strives for goal of sustainable food. Washington Post; Dec 7th, 2009. Kang, C. , (2009). A new kind of company, a new challenge for feds. Washington Post; 27th, 2009.

Complete Home Automation Using Zigbee

Complete Home Automation Using Zigbee Chapter 1 Introduction to Home Automation HOME AUTOMATION What is automation? When you have automatic control on different things and functions at your home then we can say that you have home automation. This automation can be via aRemote or wired. simply things can be control according to your wish in history differentMethod and techniques are use to implement the home automation. Why people day by day are inclined towards home automation. there are lots of reason behindThis but the main reason is that you dont need to rebuild your home, you dont need to moveThe walls of home, it is easy to implement and without investing lot of money you can install itAt your home. a middle class person can afford the expense of home automation. ItsInstallation is very simple and easy. And a very y less time is required to automate the whole Home with different available products. Home automation gives a facility to user that he can control the things according to his wish inVery easier way. home automation may include different task like home security, a utomaticOn/off of lighting, control of sound system and etc. In a home automation a user can control the Things from any place in the home. Also sometime a user himself can implement home automation in his home via differentProducts those are easily available in the market. Plus points of home automation There is a reason that why till now most people keep on using home automation facility. theMain reason is that they got much convenience in using home automation. as in modern age aPerson want to do lot of work. also with the lavish style of life people are going to be lazy andThey want much convenience in work of their life. so to get convenience they need homeAutomation in their daily life. Let take an example of first home automation application. the first home automation exampleWas the TV remote control. before this application you have to face lot of difficulties like you?Have to sit near the television to change the channels and to control the volume. also you haveTo wake up at a particular time to turn on your TV set. Now with the help of a single remoteControl you can do all this task easily. how much convenience you can get with a single homeAutomation product. you can observe from the above example. Human desire never comes to an end. so the invention of single remote contr ol was not theUltimate goal. it was the initialization of home automation. different home automation taskWere keep on adding in home automation like heater, washing machine, control of lights, warm your mattress before you enter the room, and automation heating and cooling of yourWashroom water before the few minutes earlier of your wake up alarm. IS IT CONVENIENCE OR NEED? Convenience is not only the reason for home automation. there can be other reason for homeAutomation like NEED of using home automation. there can different need. one need may beThe security, it is also convenience but it fall under the category of need. before automation inHome security you have to use different security devices and guards but now with the help ofSimple and cheap home security you can provide home security. MISCILANEOUS BENEFITS Thieves and unknown persons can be monitored via motion sensor and you can get updateFrom the remote position that who is trying to enter to your home. also different door openingAnd locking systems are used at the particular door so that if some unauthorized person triesTo enter the home then a security alarm may be passed to the higher authorities. This alert mayBe send to you via email, mobile text message or a pre recorded call. Also when you come to your home late at night and you feel fear to enter in the dark home. butWith the help of home automation you can turn on your home lights when you are near to yourHome via a message or call. the pre assigned light will automatically turn on when you willEnter to your home and you will not feel any any more fear. Also this can be done that when youJust unlock the main door of your home then with this all the lights turn off automatically. itWorks like a mobile profile. At different occasion you switch on different mobile profiles. AsWhen you are in your meeting with boos then you just turn on your silent profile with a singleButton. all other related settings got automatically selected. In similar way with the help ofSingle button, message, email or a call you can get your desired lighting control. Automatic opening and closing of main door of home also fall under the category of need. ifYou dont have this facility then you have to hire a security guard for 24 hours at the door, whoWill open and close the door when your car will give horn. but with the help of simple ho meAutomation you can achieve this task. when your car comes in front of main gate, a cameraThere recognize that is this car is allowed to enter the home, if yes then the system there willAutomatically open the door and after you enter the home the door will be automatically close. Safety Safety is another point due to which people use home automation. for example if there is waterIn your home basement due to heavy rain at your home then with the help of homeAutomation you can receive an alert message for excess of water in the basement. Also if the temperature of any particular room or location of your home falls beyond theNormal limits then a high/low temperature alert activated. in case of fire and smoke at anyPlace at the home this home automation application may be very successful and heavy loss canBe avoided. Home automation charge cost but this cost looks no more that the benefits you got from theHome automation. for example you are sleeping and there is fire or high temperature in anyArea of your home then imagine that if you dont get the alert then what happen if youKeep on sleeping. might be possible that you yourself caught in the fire. a person can enjoy theHome safety at a very low cost. Home automation is little bit technical but it is not difficult to i mplement. when you haveDifferent home automated products then you need the methods to implement these products. There different method and techniques for implementation of home automation. one methodMay be superior than the other. there are different methods of home automation. and toMethod of implementation will guide you that how much cost you are required. by using efficientMethods you can save lot of money. before implementing home automation to your home, youMust analyze that which method can be suitable and efficient for you according to your needs, cost, choice and life style. In mostly home automation setup a remote is used. and this remote work only for the systemThat are installed at different home appliances. with the help of this single remote you haveComplete control on the automated applications at your home. with the help of this singleRemote control you can control the lighting system, cooling and heating system, safety system, security system, irrigation controlling and all other related home appliances. this remote canWork from any place in the home without any delay. within seconds you can implement youDesired task. In movies you observe the many home automated things that look different to implement inOur life. but as the technology is advance now so that automation can be applied at home withThe help of gadgets and new technology features of devices. IT IS A PART OF HOME ITEMS Peoples views about home automation are different. some say that it is wastage of money andThere is no need for it but some say that it is a part of your home items. they use to say that it isA part of home like other things in home, like other home appliances. so they dont think it 0asSeparate thing and consider it a need for a complete home. while other think that it is a luxuryAnd there is no much need for it,If you buy new and different things on regular basis then there would the best way that youShould buy or invest your money in different home automated things cause in homeAutomation newer and newer technologies are evolving day by day and there is no limit forHome automation. simply it depends on your pocket that how much you can invest. According to need and convenience of different people there are different levels for homeAutomation. but the basic and necessary home automation must include the following things, that can be different categories for home automation Security Security always remain a big issue in home automation. most of the work have been doneRegarding this. in old home automation system there were not include the security alarm. youHave to implement security separately. but now security alarm are the built in feature of theHome automation. old security alarms turn on when someone break the window glass or try toCross the wall or try to unlock the door. when security alarm turn on then the thief haveEnough time to escape. before you reach there the thief had run away. Now with the help of built in and automatic alarm you dont need to search for the thief in yourHome. you can just press the alert button if you feel any fear. then if there would be thief inPart of your home then the lights of that place will automatically turn on and if the thief wouldBe in the room or inside the home then the main door will automatically locked so that heCouldnt ran. according to police that a good lighting arrangement can help in protection ofHome from t hiefs. in your home where you want to turn on or off light automatically you justNeed to install a module there and your desired task can be easily achieved. Mostly people install home automation system for money safety and high alert alarms areInstalled near the money safe. but modern home automation system not only consider themoney safety but also the human safety. In fact the safety is much important than the moneyAnd your property. with the help of home automation you can insure the safety and security ofYou and your whole family. with the help of single button you can easily do this. CONVENIENCE As this is the age of technology. everyone is enjoying the benefits of modern technology. soWhy you will not want? By using the home automation you can enjoy the muchConvenience. Your complete home control is in a single remote control. and with this singleRemote you can control every automated thing at your home. you dont need to do much hardWork. in fact with the latest technology people are going to be lazy. and also you yourself wantTo be relaxing. You daily waste much or your time in on/off you home and street lights, waste time in checkingThe locks of all doors before you sleep. you have to be alerted regarding gas and electricHeater. You cant get the second chance for leakage of gas. in this entire how much you have to beAttentive and alert. a sharp memory and hard work is required for this. but with the help ofSingle remote you can save lot of mind work and avoid lot of hard work. if everything would beAutomated then just imagine how it would be relaxing and enjoying. And eve ryone likes to use that single remote. Also it looks very attractive and pleasant to have home automation at your home. every guestMay impress with the unique and advance features of home automation that you have installedAt your home. complete home is in your hand via a single remote control. you can do everyThing with the help of this remote like turn on/off light, your TV, sound system and safety andSecurity system. In previous home automation system compatibility was the major issue. but now a device isCompatible with lot of other devices. so you have great flexibility. Home automation can improve your life style and standard. after having the completeKnowledge through about home automation, you should buy the home automation devices soThat you could enjoy the automation according to your wish and desire. Now there are lot off companies in the market that provide home automation and home safety. you just needs to call the vendor and they will install the home automation at your home. firstlyYou have to analyze that where you need home automation at your home then install and thenCall for company. You are the best person who can think that where you need automation at your home. EXTRA COMFORT In this modern age people are adopting different technologies for relax and comfort. They useTo buy different products as they want to make their life simple and much easier. due to thisReason they are also inclined to install home automation system at their homes. It is the homeAutomation due to which they have complete control on every electronic device at their home. as there is many electronic devices at your home like air conditioner, heater, and cooler, microwave oven, sound system, etc. every one want to control all these electronics devicesWith as much easiness as he can. Home automation provides you the height of easiness and comfort. for example if you busy inWatching your TV program. let suppose that you are watching cricket match and you dont wantTo be disturbed and you forgot to switch off the other room lights. then with the help ofWireless home automation you can easily do this. now modern home automation system haveTouch screen instead of remote control. Also exciting feature of home automation is that now days you can do automation remotely. it is not necessary that you must be present at the home. if you are at your office and you wantTo turn on/off your home lights then you can do it with help of internet or simply with the helpOf your small touch phone. you just need to access the your home automation control consoleVia a website then you can do what you want to do. with this facility you can make setting ofEverything before you reach the home. for example you can play song of your own choice, make setting of light according to your wish and need, get your air conditioner on so that whenYou reach home; your room will automatically cool. In fact you are virtually present at your home. now you dont have to pay lot off for forgettingThings. and you can avoid lot of losses. You can watch and observe every person at your home with the help of cameras that are linkedWith internet. you just excess this facility by just surfing the website. with the help of thisFeature you can enjoy the completely safety from the outsiders and thief. Today the home automation system is very good, comfortable and reliable. these cant beEasily trapped by anyone. previously this was a main drawback of the home automationSystems EASY TO IMPLEMENT Home automation system is very easy and there is not difficulties in implementing this. it can be Implement with very less cost and no extra loss for its installation is required. SAVING OF ENERGY By using home automation you can save lot of energy. if you use automatic control of lights in Your home then you can easily turn off light in the morning via a simple remote control or simply You can configure that these lights should be turn on for a specific duration. and your home Automation system will automatically switch on or off the lights according to the given schedule. INFRARED TECHNOLOGY As it was discussed earlier that the TV remote was the first home automation application. andInfrared technology was used in it. so infrared technology put the basic for wireless homeAutomation. as this technology is very cheap so it can be easily used by the low budget personsIf there are advantages of using infrared then there are also disadvantages of infrared. one ofIts disadvantage is that it is a very short range and it always require a line of sight connectionFor working. you cant control any infrared application while sitting in the other room. Mostly remote control in the current age have this infrared technology. they are still haveImportance and commonly used in daily life. they are wide use in mobile, laptops and differentElectronics machines like automatic bar reader and different scanner at big departmentalStores. You can easily turn on/off a single light with infrared but what happen when you want to turnOn/off bulk of lights. do you need multiple infrared receivers fo r each light. as at the any holyOccasion or at marriage ceremony, you want to turn on all the light in the evening and want toTurn off all the light in the morning. how you can do this task with the help of infrared. in factInfrared can do this but this would be more costly. so you need to think advance and try toThink different way to implement task like the above task. so at that time there was a need ofNew technology. In door and out lighting is commonly controlled via remotely. some homeAutomation systems have thermostat facility that can easily achieve the automatic on and offLighting. in home automation system by pressing the single button multiple task can beAccomplished. X10 technology To improve the drawbacks of previous technologies the X10 technology came into the field. This is a very famous technology and their different products are available in the market. thisTechnology was mostly liked by the users. It was very popular technology at it age. let try toKnow what was this technology in actual. X10 is a communication technique that is used by the devices working on X10 technology. these devices implement the task given by the users. you can say that X10 is a language thatDifferent devices can understand. this act as a translator between the different devices thatDont know the same language for working. one feature of it is that it compatible with relatedDevices. to implement X10 you dont need to work hard and you dont need to break, cut andMove your home walls. X10 is just work with the electrical outlets and wiring that are alreadyInstalled at your home. you dont need to use hard wire for implementation of X10. so it is alsoCheap and affordable and can be eas ily implemented. you just need to buy the X10 elementsThat are easily available in the market. due to its simplicity and affordability it became veryPopular in the world. its communication tool installation is very simple. you just need to installIts transmitter into the outlet in the wall. and similarly you need to install a receiver at theOutlet in the wall. Both transmitter and receiver are connected with a device when aTransmitter sends any signal then the device receives the signal and tries to know that what isThis signal in actual. and then pass it to the receiver and the desired task is can be performedEasily. 256 different units can be operate with a simple X10 unit. so now you can easily turn on/off your light at wedding or holy gathering easily. a unique operation is performed with aSingle assigned address but a single address can be assigned to two different things so that aSame task can be implemented on the both things or devices. for example you want to turn offYour s treet lights then you can assign the same address to all the streets lights. one plus pointOf X10 is that its all products are compatible with each other there is no compatibility issue. CHAPTER 2:Related Work and Hardware Description 2. 1 Literature Review : We discussed some previous techniques used for home automation. There features and drawbacks. 2. 1. 2 Home Automation using Bluetooth: It is a chip technology enabling us to communicate with a lot of devices. It is a popular way of short range communication. By enhancing this technology we can use it to automate homes. It employs the 2. 4Ghz unlicensed band and has data rate up to 720Kbps. Its range is usually 10 meters but can be increased to 100 meter by using higher powered antenna. Its only draw back Is it short range. . RANGE :10m DATA RATE : 20 To 250 kbps DATA RATE : 720Kbps ENERGY : Multi-year battery life ENERGY : Multi-day battery life Table 1: zigbee and bluetooth comparison 2. 1. 3 Home Automation using GSM: GSM stands for Global system for mobile communication. As it works in cells there are different types of cells. and each cell cover different areas. cell radius depend on antenna gain, power, height. GSM has three types of services. * Tele Services:* Calls, short message service. tele-fax. * Bearer services* asynchronous and synchronous data* Supplementary services* call forwarding ,call barring* usually in home automation we send commands with mobile in form of SMS. The drawbacks of this techniques are service dependent, its possible that because of congestion On the network your might SMS delivered late. Or you get a delayed SMS from home mounted module about the current status of the different household equipment. 2. 2 DESIGN ARCHITECHTURE 2. 2. 1 Command Unit 2. 2. 2 Control Unit 2. 3 COMPONENT SELECTION 2. 3. 1 Zigbee Module (XBee Pro) We use XBee Pro as a transceiver module because it consumes very low power and has long range and nominal data rate. more information on this module is given in hard ware overview chapter. 2. 3. 2 Microcontroller (Atmega 16) We use ATMEGA16 because it is a low power and has greater SRAM and EEPROM memory And it can be easily interfaced with zigbee and other components. More information is available in Hardware review chapter. 2. 3. 3 MAX 232 It is used to convert a signal from TTL logic to RS232 level. It is used to communicate with computer. More detai is given in hardware review chapter. Summary Chapter 3: Hardware and Software Methodlogy 3. 1 Using Atmega Timers: 3. 1. 1Timers with LED The timer code enable the number of led after the time given by the user. In the timer code PORTB is set as an output. The timer counter control register(TCCR1B) is used to set the timerThe clock source with eight prescaler and the normal mode is used in the timer. Timer counter register (TCNT1) is used to initialize the timer. TIMSK is used to enable overflow interrupt and SREG enables the global interrupt. The similar task is also done without timer. 3. 1. 2 Timers with LEDs ,Push button and Buzzer Figure 3: Timers With Leds ,Push button ,Buzzer In this code we simply USE A push button to enable the timer and used a BUZZER. The buzzer will on with the led but buzzer will off after 500 ms and led remains on. 3. 2 LCD INTERFACING WITH ATMEGA 16: The PORTD and PORTB is set as a output. The comand_set function is used to give the necessary instruction to the LCD. The data_set function is used to send data to the LCD through PORTB. The display function is used to latch the data. 3. 3 KEYPAD INTERFACING WITH ATMEGA 16: A 4*4 keypad is interfaced with the microcontroller ATMEGA 16 to select the fixed load and variable load and to give the time after which the load has to on. The PORTA is used as you can see in the figure. 3. 4 Selection Of A Fixed Load We select a fixed load 2 from keypad. Figure : Selection Of A Fixed Load Load 2 is selected. Now it is on. The status of load 1 is on. The status of load 2 is off. 3. 4 Accessing EEPROM In EEPROM_WRITE function the EEPROM is being checked that, either it is being written previously or not. Then the address has passed to EEPROM and after this the data has passed to EEPROM. The EEMWE bit has set to logic one an after this the EEWE bit has set to logic one. [1] 3. 5 Using ADC In ADC analog voltage is converted into dc voltage with 10 bit resolution. In ADMUX register of ADC the voltage reference is set, The ADC left adjust result is set to logic zero and channel is selected. In ADCSRA the ADC enabled bit and ADC start conversion bit are set to logic one. When ADC conversion completes bit 4 is set. All the codes are given in the cd. [1] SUMMARY Chapter 4: SOFTWARE OVERVIEW The following software we use in our project* CodeVisionAVR C Compiler* AVR Studio 4 debugger * Proteus Version (6. 9) 4. 1 Code VisionAVR CodeVisionAVR is the c compiler that is used to program the ATMEL microcontrollers. It is very easy to use. You can develop applications for embedded systems by using it. 4. 1. 2 Features of CodeVisionAVR The CodeVisionAVR C Compiler has following features:* CodeVisionAVR is compatible with Atmel and AVR Studio Debugger * A new project is created by using it* Compilation of the C Code* Editing of the C Code* It runs on the operating system i. e. Windows,XP,7,VistaIt is the new microcontrollers with high memory. It is the only compiler through which we can programmed the ATMEL microcontrollers. 4. 1. 3 Creating a new file A new file can be created by clicking on the toolbar button. After this save the file. 4. 1. 4 Creating a new project Click on the toolbar button. Now click on the â€Å"No† button. Now save the project. 4. 1. 5 Configuring the project Select the atmega 16 and set it clock 4. 0MHz. Choose the application as a program type. Now add the file under the project name. 4. 2 AVR Studio 4 4. 2. 1 Features of AVR Studio 4 For proper controlling the Zigbee modules accurate codes and programming was needed. Wehave divided the our big task into smaller task. By doing so we easily wrote the code anddebugging was easy. â€Å"AVR Studio 4 is the integrated development Environment (IDE) for developing 8-bit AVR applications in windows 2000/XP?VISTA/7 environments†[2 ]The features that AVR Studio provides are supporting run control including source and instruction level stopping and memory,registers,breakpoints and watch variable and allow you to see what your code will do in reality with microcontroller. 4. 3 Proteus The Proteus software is used to design the PCB and to do a microprocessor simulations. Its latest version is compatible with windows XP,VISTA,7. 4. 3. 1 Features of Proteus * 3D Board Visualization* Professional PCB layout module* Basic simulation* 2D Drawing with symbol library SUMMARY CHAPTER5 HARDWARE OVERVIEW ATMEGA 16: Overview: â€Å"Atmega16 is low-power AVR enhanced RISC Architecturebased CMOS 8-bit microcontroller. By Executing instructions in a single clock cycle it achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz. † Features: The ATmega16 has16K bytes of In-System Programmable Flash Program memory which Consists of 512 bytes EEPROM, 1K byte SRAM. It has 32 general purpose I/O lines, 32 General purpose working registers. It has On-chip Debugging support and programming And has three Timer/Counters having Internal and External Interrupts. For serial commun-Ication it has programmable USART. For analog to digital conversion it has 8-channel, 10-bit ADC with optional differential input stage with programmable gain. It has a Wat-Chdog Timer having internal Oscillator and it can be programmed. [1]Pin configuration: Pin descriptions: port A We use Port A to serves as the analog inputs to the A/D Converter. It also serves as an 8-bit bi-Directional I/O port, if the A/D Converter is not used. Port pins can provide internal pull-up Resistors. When pins PA0 to PA7 are used as inputs and are externally pulled low, they will Source current if the internal pull-up resistors are activated. The Port A pins are tri-stated whena reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. [1] Port B it is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors. The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. [1] Port C It is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors. The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. [1] Port D Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors. The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As I nputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. [1] RESET PIN : It Reset the Input. A low level on this pin will generate a reset, even if the clock is not running. AVCC : It is the supply voltage pin for Port A and the A/D Converter. It should always be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. It should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter if the ADC is used. [1] AREF : AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter. VCC Digital supply voltage. (Input voltage) GND ground. 5. 2 XBEE PRO 5. 2. 1 Overview The XBee Pro module is designed to support low power,low cost wireless sensor networks. It requires minimal power and provide reliable communication between remote devices. 5. 2. 2 Features * Long Range: Indoor 100m and Outdoor 1500m. Transmit Power 100 mW(20 dBm)Receiver Sensitivity -100 dBm * Low Power: Tx Current 210 mA @ 3. 3VRx Current 80 mA @ 3. 3V* Advanced Networking Security Retries and Acknowledgement Self routingDirect Sequence Spread Spectrum * Easy to use No configuration required for out of box RF communicationAT and API command modes for configuring module parametersSmall form factorExtensive command set 5. 2. 3 Pin Description Some pins can be set as Analog Input, Digital Input, Digital Output, or Analog Output (PWM). The numbers of pins are up to seven channels of analog input, nine channels of digital I/O and two channels of PWM. Pin # Name Direction Description 1 VCC Power supply 2 DOUT Output UART Data Out 3 DIN / CONFIG Input UART Data In 4 DIO12 Either Digital I/O 12 5 RESET Input Module Reset (reset pulse must be at least 200 ns) 6 PWM0 / RSSI Output PWM Output 0 / RX Signal Strength Indicator 7 PWM1 Output PWM Output 1 8 [reserved] Do not connect 9 9 DTR / SLEEP_RQ / DI8 Either Pin Sleep Control Line or Digital I/O 8 10

The Italian Renaissance Art Period Film Studies Essay

The Italian Renaissance Art Period Film Studies Essay   The Renaissance was a cultural movement that started in Italy at the beginning of the 1400s and lasted approximately 200 years. The Renaissance period was considered a transition period from the medieval age into Early Modern Europe. The Italian Renaissance was characterized by a shift in several cultural areas, from literature to politics to religion. During the Renaissance, Italian art underwent major artistic changes from the medieval period. The Italian Renaissance became one of the most productive and innovative time periods in the industry of art in painting, sculpture and architecture. Raphael, Michelangelo and Da Vinci were the key figures that were responsible for bringing about the significant changes in themes, styles and perspective of Italian art from the medieval period. Although the cultural changes in areas such as religion, literature, and sciences were considered significant contributions to the Renaissance period, the most innovative and notable changes were ma de in the Italian art, which had taken a back seat in the middle ages because of the political unrest that was going on in Europe. Given the overwhelming changes and revival of the arts, Italian art had the most significant impact in the Renaissance that ultimately resulted in the re-birth of Europe. The late Middle Ages period which has been defined as the time period between the 1300s and early 1400s was a difficult and trying time for Europe. During this time period, Europe went through a great famine caused by severe weather conditions as well as the bubonic plague (Black Death) in the late 1340s. (C pg 534). Both of these tragedies took a huge toll in human life. In addition to these two tragedies, Europe was also dealing with social unrest, warfare and the challenges facing the Catholic Church. The arts were not deemed significantly important during these challenging times and not much advances were made in this field. However, as the end of the 14th century approached, a movement was beginning to emerge in the arts and sciences in Italy. The most obvious changes during the Renaissance period were seen in painting and sculptures. Prior to the Renaissance, most of the Italian art revolved around religious subjects and themes. However, during the Renaissance, artists started to experiment with creating non-religious subjects such as creating portraits of living persons instead of just saints. Artists became more comfortable with developing their own individual styles and challenged themselves to be innovative and try new techniques. Painters began to place more focus on the humanistic aspects of life and implemented various new techniques, including humanism and perspective, sfumato, chiaroscuro, fresco and foreshortening in order to achieve their objective of realism. Realism became a popular characteristic of Italian Renaissance. Anatomy also became of particular interest to many of the Italian Renaissance artists. The artists were also interested in depicting the human form that mirrored real life. For the first time , Renaissance artists were producing art in Italy that reflected the real world. Painters used form, color, proportion, light, shade composition and anatomy to depict human nature and reality into their artistic work creating images of real people with expressions and emotions. The Italian Renaissance was highlighted by three separate periods, each of which contained distinct aspects that contributed to the cultural re-birth of Europe. The three periods of the Renaissance were the Early Renaissance (beginning of the 1400 to late 1400s), High Renaissance (Late 1400s to early 1500s) and Late Renaissance (early 1500s to 1600). The period of the Renaissance was led by a number of artists who were intelligent, innovative and ready to delve into a new art form. The first period, known as the Early Renaissance, took place during the early 15th century. Early Renaissance art was heavily influenced by Donatello, an Italian artist and sculptor and Masaccio, an Italian painter who scholars often refer to as the leading innovator in early fifteenth century painting. (C pg 601) Donatellos artistic style and works represent the significant facets of Early Renaissance time period. Donatellos bronze statue of David, considered to be his most famous work of art, depicts a common theme of the era. David is representative of a hero, which became a staple of early renaissance art. Heroes, which were a popular aspect of the humanist movement, were commonly portrayed in works of art during this the Early Renaissance. Donatellos earlier work also depicted the idea of youthfulness which was also another popular aspect of the humanist movement. Donatello utilized the technique of bronzing, and was notorious for his bronze pieces of art, such as his life size statue of David. David also displayed a new Renaissance style that is evident in both the classical nudity and the use of the classical contrapposto (twist of the hips), as well as the boldness of interpretation. Many of Donatellos sculptures are considered breakthroughs. For example, the statue of David was the first nude statute of the Renaissance (C pg 612). Another statue of Donatello, Gattamelata (the equestrian statute of Erasmo de Narni), is considered to be one of the best proportioned sculptures ever created. (C pg 618). Donatello, who was considered to be a very keen observer of human life and behavior, was able to portray different types of figures in his work and make it them look very realistic. One of Donatellos remarkable achievements was his ability to move forward the naturalistic illusion and classical idealism in sculpture. (C pg 593). Donatello also created science of perspective through the use of bas-relief or low relief in his work where the image is projected with a shallow overall depth which allows for exploitation of perspective and obtain a dramatic effect. The earliest example of the use of relief is the base of the statute of Saint George, which is decorated with a relief of Saint George and the Dragon. In the bronze relief panel of Feast of Herod, Donatello uses central perspective space for the first time which allows for intensifying the actions and characterizations of the subjects and makes them look real. (B pg 36-37).Donatellos incorporation of Greek classical principles was evident in the marble statute of Saint Mark. In this sculpture, Donatello took a fundamental step toward displaying motion in the human figure by recognizing the principle of weight shift and stresses the movement of the arms, legs, shoulders and hips. (C pg 599) Masaccio, one of Donatellos counterparts, was considered the best painter of the Early Renaissance. He showed a great skill at recreating life-like figures and movements. Scholars often identify Masaccio as the leading innovator in early 15th century painting. Most art historians acknowledge that no other painter in history has contributed so much to the development of a new style in such a short a time as Masaccio. Masaccio was also a master of fresco technique. The frescoes Masaccio painted in Florence provide excellent examples of his innovations. One of his greatest contributions to art of fresco painting was the use of light and dark instead of lines to represent figures in his paintings which was depicted in the . (A pg 157 )He was also one of the first to use something called linear perspective in his painting using the vanishing point technique. In the painting Tribute Money, Masaccio uses chiaroscuro, an art form that uses strong contrast between light and dark to give the i llusion of deep structural relief. (C pg 603) During his career, Masaccio transformed the direction of Italian painting, by moving it away from the idealizations of Gothic art, and, for the first time, presenting it as part of a more profound, natural, and humanist world 605) The next period of the Renaissance that influenced the cultural re-birth is known as the High Renaissance. The High Renaissance lasted from the late 15th century to about 1520. The most influential artists of this time of the High Renaissance period were Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael. Leonardo Da Vinci, arguably the most renowned artist in all of art history, made great, if not the greatest, contributions to the re-birth. Da Vinci often used religious themes in his paintings, which was reflective of the time and the impact religion had during this time period. During the High Renaissance time period, the Church was going through major changes as a result of the Protestant Reformation that was underway. The Protestant Reformation, which established the Protestant church in reaction to the corruption of the Catholic Church, also helped bring about the counter-reformation which established the Inquisition. The Inquisition established rules of visual imagery in the arts and tried to enforce these rules. This common theme of religion was represented throughout a majority of Leonardos paintings including two of his most famous ones, The Last Supper and Saint Jerome. The Last Supper depicted the image of Jesus and his 12 apostles seated at the altar, with Jesus in the ce nter, breaking bread. This scene is representative of when Jesus informs the apostles he has been betrayed by one of them. In this painting, Da Vinci portrayed a common theme of Italian Renaissance art, humanism. Humanism placed more emphasis on Man and less stress on God. In The Last Supper painting, Da Vinci placed more of an emphasis on Jesus Christ by placing him in the center of the painting, focusing the attention on him. Humanism attempted to attach faces or visual beings to religion, which is why there was such a rise in paintings of religious figures such as evangelists and saints. In Saint Jerome, once again the theme of religion can be seen along with the humanistic view of the time period. Saint Jerome is as close as Da Vinci came in a painting to his numerous anatomical drawings. These were a logical development of the Classical revival and the humanist view of mens centrality, beauty of form and superior intellect. In the painting, Saint Jerome is shown holding a rock with which he appears prepared to strike the lion with, showing mans dominance over animals. Saint Jerome is also very detailed which furthers the emphasis placed on man. The detail and realistic view that Da Vinci places in his art is another popular characteristic of Italian Renaissance art known as realism. Italian Renaissance artists, not just Da Vinci, all strived to attain greater realism in their works of art. Unlike the art of the 13th and early 14th centuries, the art of the Italian Renaissance appeared far more realistic. Art strayed away from the flat, stiff images of the previous ages, to more life-like figures that displayed real emotions. In order to produce this greater realism in art, artists such as Da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael all used a technique known as sfumato, which literally means lost in smoke. Sfumato was an artistic technique that uses light and shade to place emphasis and some areas and defer it from other areas of lesser importance. Humanistic artists used this technique to aid in the emphasis of man in their paintings. Da Vinci combined the sfumato technique with his skill with chiaroscuro and perspective to create the mysterious smile in his most famous portrait, Mona Lisa. Michelangelo is another Italian Renaissance artist whose artistic themes and style contributed to the Renaissance being known as a period of re-birth. Michelangelo, like Da Vinci and many other artists of this time period, took a humanistic approach to his art work. Michelangelo was interested in definite form, and the human body alone seemed worthy of representation. Michelangelo aimed primarily for concentration and precise details, similar to Da Vinci, and attempted to capture emotion with every stroke of the brush. For example, in Michelangelos sculpture of David, David is depicted not with an emotionless expression on his face. Instead, David is shown with a very detailed anger, as he prepares to face Goliath, in their infamous showdown. Michelangelo is also notable for his use of the contrapposto pose, which was also reflected in the sculptures of Donatello in the Early Renaissance. One of Michelangelos famous works in which he uses the contrapposto pose, which once again is th e twisting of the hips, is his Bacchus. Bacchus is sculpted nude with a glass of wine in hand, which is representative of the fact that Bacchus is the Greek god of wine and intoxication. (Need Notation from your book) Michelangelo was not only a brilliant sculpture but also a great painter whose work was a major contributor to the Renaissance. The paints on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel are one of the most famous artwork that was created during the Renaissance. Although Michelangelo has studied painting, sculpture was where his interest was. At the request of Julius II, he agreed to paint the Sistine Chapel even though painting was not his profession. His inexperience along with the magnitude of the project were going to be a challenge, but a challenge that he quickly overcame because of his innate talents and desire to produce exceptional work. The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel was an enormous fresco depicting various passages from the Book of Genesis including the Creation of Adam in the ceiling and the Last Judgment at the alter. Similar to his sculptures, his paintings also focus on the human figure and its natural beauty. (C pg 648-651) Raphael, the youngest of the three great contributors to High Renaissance at, was an Italian painter and architect. Raphaels work took the artistic innovations that had been developed by Da Vinci and Michelangelo and created his own style in depicting the ideals of the Renaissance.(C pg 654) The School of Athens, one of Raphaels most famous paintings, displays the classical spirit of the High Renaissance. This painting along with three others completed along the walls of the Stanza della Segnatura room, which was the library in the papal apartment at the Vatican, show great philosophers and scientists of the ancient word coming together to discuss their theories and ideas.. Aristotle and Plato, the two great philosophers of ancient Greece, are portrayed as the key figures in these paintings. (C pg 653) In line with the realism theme of this time period, the figures in Raphaels paintings are known for their display of realistic emotions. Another characteristic of Raphaels work was the perfection and grace that he portrayed in his paintings and drawings. A theme throughout Raphaels work is the Christian devotion and pagan beauty. This theme is brought out in his series of Madonna paintings where Christian devotion and pagan beauty are brought together. In one of Raphaels best frescoes, Galatea, which Raphael based on ancient Roman poet Orvids Metamorphoses, the pagan joy and excitement is displayed praising human beauty and passionate love. (C pg 656) Raphael also excelled at portraiture. The subjects of his portraits were primarily scholars and courtiers surrounding the Pope. His portraits tended to exhibit the increasing attention that High Renaissance artists paid to the subjects personality and psyche. In addition, Raphael also revived the gods and heroes of classical times and the world they lived in, not to honor them but to transform them into art. (C pg 656) The Late Renaissance period experienced a slow down in the arts. A number of factors including political instability, the preachings of Martin Luther leading many to question the authority of the Church, and especially the Churchs response to the Luthers Protestant Reformation put a freeze on any type of Renaissance innovation. In order to protect itself against further criticism, the Church started to censor literary or artistic ambitions. The Late Renaissance movement which became known as Mannerism, represents the winding down of the Renaissance period and a departure from the ideals of the High Renaissance. The mannerist paintings, sculptures and architecture decided to challenge rules of the Renaissance and change them to a certain extent. The rules of perspective, nudity, and lighting that were developed during the High Renaissance were pushed to the side. Instead the artists of Mannerism opted to create art that showed elegance and beauty but not really realistic. (C pg 673-675) The three pioneers of Mannerism were Pontormo, Fiorentino and Bronzino. During this period, artists shifted from the realistic forms of the art completed in the High Renaissance to a more artificial form with distortions and exaggerations. In contrast to the natural, calm, and proportional art of the High Renaissance, Mannerism art was full of bizarre colors and images where figures are shown with abnormally elongated limbs and strange poses. (C pg 673-674). For example, in one of his paintings, Lamentation, Pontormo distorts the figures bodies by stretching them, exaggerating their postures and applying unreal colors. Mannerist painters also used portraiture to create sophisticated elegance.(C pg 676) Mannerism was not limited to painting. It also included sculpture and architecture. Benvenuto Cellini, a mannerist sculptor, tended to exaggerate the characteristics of his work in accordance with the rules of mannerism. This was evident in his sculpture of Genius of Fontainebleau. Similar to the Mannerism paintings, the characteristics of the sculptures also exaggerated and out of proportion.(C pg 678) The Renaissance was a period of incredible achievements and innovations in the arts. A few artists with exceptional talent, an amazing level of imagination and an ability to express themselves through their work, changed the world of art forever in a relatively short period of time. They took advantage of the opportunity that history had given them to put man and the human figure at the center of their work. The Renaissance was a time of great artistic development where painters and sculptors were discovering individualism, harmony, perspective and realism in their portrayal of human being. The Renaissance began relatively slow during the Early Renaissance but sprang into full gear during the High Renaissance waned during the Late Renaissance. Although the Renaissance was a period of major achievements in literature, philosophy and the sciences, the most dramatic accomplishments were achieved in the Arts. This period of rebirth is most and foremost associated with the artistic accomplishments of Masaccio, Donatello, Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael. The High Renaissance represented an outstanding pool of talent that surfaced in the same area around the same time. These artists were individual geniuses who combined classical work and realism to transform the art. They took the flat and stiff images from the previous periods and converted them into more life-like figures that displayed emotion and reality. Italian artists and sculptors were innovative, creative, ambitious, and bold. They dared to go above and beyond to achieve their goals and were determined to achieve greatness in their field. As a result of the extraordinary artistic accomplishments, Italian art had the most significant impact in the Renaissance that brought about the re-birth of Europe.